COCOA PRODUCTION

ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF COCOA

 The Latin name for cocoa Theobroma literally means, “food of the gods.” This valuable crop played an important role in many ancient South American cultures.

In its earliest forms, the Mayans used cocoa to create a ritual beverage that was shared during betrothal and marriage ceremonies, providing one of the first known links between chocolate and romance.

For nearly 100 years after the Spaniards were introduced to chocolate, the coveted drink of New World inhabitants, they kept the secret of its production to themselves. In the same years as Shakespeare wrote his final plays, the missionary and theologian José de Acosta wrote about cocoa from Lima, Peru, saying, “It is so much esteemed among the Indians that it is one of the richest and the greatest traffickers of New Spain.”

The word Cocoa derives from the Spanish word cacao, derived from the Nahuatl word cacahuatl. Cocoa can often also refer to the drink commonly known as hot chocolate; to cocoa powder, the dry powder made by grinding cocoa seeds and removing the cocoa butter from the dark, bitter cocoa solids; or to a mixture of cocoa powder and cocoa butter.

The cocoa bean, also cacao bean or simply cocoa or cacao, is the dried and fully fermented fatty seed of Theobroma cacao, from which cocoa solids and cocoa butter are extracted. They are the basis of chocolate, as well as many Mesoamerican foods such as mole sauce and tejate.

Chocolate was introduced to Europe by the Spaniards, and became a popular beverage by the mid 17th century. They also introduced the cacao tree into the West Indies and the Philippines. It was also introduced into the rest of Asia and into West Africa by Europeans. In the Gold Coast, modern Ghana, cacao was introduced by an African, Tetteh Quarshie

The cacao tree is native to the Americas. It may have originated in the foothills of the Andes in the Amazon and Orinoco basins of South America, current day Colombia and Venezuela, where today, examples of wild cacao still can be found. However, it may have had a larger range in the past, evidence for which may be obscured because of its cultivation in these areas long before, as well as after, the Spanish arrived. New chemical analyses of residues extracted from pottery excavated at an archaeological site at Puerto Escondido in Honduras indicate that it was here where cocoa products were first consumed between 1400 and 1500 BC. The new evidence also indicates that, long before the flavor of the cacao seed (or bean) became popular, it was the sweet pulp of the chocolate fruit, used in making a fermented (5% alcohol) beverage, which first drew attention to the plant in the Americas. The cocoa bean was a common currency throughout Mesoamerica before the Spanish conquest.

Cacao trees will grow in a limited geographical zone, of approximately 20 degrees to the north and south of the Equator. Nearly 70% of the world crop today is grown in West Africa. The cacao plant was first given its botanical name by Swedish natural scientist Carl Linnaeus in his original classification of the plant kingdom, who called it Theobroma ("food of the gods") cacao.

COCOA PRODUCTION 

World production

Top Cocoa Beans producers in 2012

(million metric tons)

 Ivory Coast                       1.650

 Indonesia                          0.936

 Ghana                               0.879

 Nigeria                              0.383

 Cameroon                        0.256

 Brazil                                        0.253

 Ecuador                           0.133

 Mexico                            0.083

 Dominican Republic       0.072

 Peru                                0.057

World total                4.928

UN Food & Agriculture Organisation

(FAO)

(Cocoa bean output in 2012)

More than 3,000,000 tonnes (3,000,000 long tons; 3,300,000 short tons) of cocoa are produced each year. The global production was

        1974: 1,556,484 tons,

        1984: 1,810,611 tons,

        1994: 2,672,173 tons,

        2004: 3,607,052 tons.

The production increased by 131.7% in 30 years, representing a compound annual growth rate of 2.9%.

Cocoa varieties

There are three main varieties of cocoa plant:

1. Forastero

2. Criollo

3. Trinitario.

The first is the most widely used, comprising 95% of the world production of cocoa. Overall, the highest quality cocoa beans come from the Criollo variety, which is considered a delicacy. Criollo plantations have lower yields than those of Forastero, and also tend to be less resistant to several diseases that attack the cocoa plant, hence very few countries still produce it. One of the largest producers of Criollo beans is Venezuela (Chuao and Porcelana). Trinitario is a hybrid between Criollo and Forastero varieties. It is considered to be of much higher quality than the latter, but has higher yields and is more resistant to disease than the former.

There were 3.54 million tonnes of cocoa beans produced in the 2008–2009 growing year, which runs from October to September. Of this total, African nations produced 2.45 million tonnes (69%), Asia and Oceania produced 0.61 million tonnes (17%) and the Americas produced 0.48 million tonnes (14%). Two African nations, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, produce more than half of the world's cocoa, with 1.23 and 0.73 million tonnes respectively (35% and 21%, respectively).

 In 2012, the largest cocoa-bean producing countries in the world are as follows.

Country       Amount produced Percentage of world production

Côte d'Ivoire   1.65 million tons          33.0%

Indonesia      936 thousand tons          18.7%

Ghana           879 thousand tons          17.6%

Nigeria          383 thousand tons          7.7%

Cameroon     256 thousand tons          5.1%

Brazil            253 thousand tons          5.1%

Ecuador        133 thousand tons          2.7%

Mexico           83 thousand tons          1.7%

PROPAGATION

Basic requirements

Cocoa trees are tropical plants and grow best in humid conditions at temperatures between 18 and 32°C (65–90°F). It is typically grown in regions where daytime humidity reaches up to 100% and night time humidity is between 70 and 80%. The plants require a deep, fertile and well-draining soil with a pH of 5.0–7.5 for optimum development. Cocoa is usually grown in tropical lowland areas is sensitive to drought. It should typically not be grown in regions which experience less than 1 cm of rainfall for periods in excess of 3 months.

Seeds

Cocoa seeds from healthy, ripe pods remain viable for 3 weeks and are usually planted straight after harvest to produce new seedlings. Seeds should be planted in a fiber basket or plastic nursery bag filled with clean soil and placed in a shaded place protected from the sun to prevent scorching. Seedlings grow quickly and are ready to be transplanted after 4–6 months. 

Vegetative propagation 

Cocoa can also be vegetatively propagated via cuttings, marcotting and budding. Cuttings should have 2–5 leaves and 1 or 2 buds. Leaves should be cut in half before placing the cutting in a pot and covering with polyethylene to allow roots to develop. Marcotting, is achieved by removing a strip of bark from a tree branch and covering the area with a layer of sawdust before covering it with polyethylene. The covered area will develop roots and can then be removed and planted. The final method, called budding, can be used to rejuvenate older plantings and involves excising a bud and positioning it under a flap of bark on another tree. The join is then sealed with raffia and waxed tape. Once the bud begins to grow the tree above the new growth should be removed. 

Planting and shading

Seedlings are usually planted in the ground when they are 4–6 months old. The young trees are delicate and require some protection from strong sunlight and wind damage. Protection is usually provided by planting seedlings next to mother trees. This shading also helps to prevent the trees from growing too tall, keeping them at a manageable size for maintenance and harvest. Shade trees are usually other crops such as banana, plantain coconut or rubber. Cocoa seedlings should be planted 3–4 m (10–13 ft) apart and 3–6 m (10–20 ft) from the shade trees. The shading can be reduced once the cocoa trees have formed a closed canopy but some should be retained to reduce water stress and insect damage. 

General care and maintenance

The cocoa nursery should be kept weed free while the seedlings established but generally do not require weeding after the trees have formed a closed canopy as the lack of light under the trees prevent any further growth. Cocoa should be supplied with additional nutrients by fertilizing, particularly when trees are grown on poor soils or without shade. Organic fertilizers are generally preferable to inorganic ones as they do not deplete the soil organic content and conserve soil structure. The amount of fertilizer required is dependent on many factors, such as the age of the tree and the amount of shading but mature cocoa generally requires at least 50–100 kg/ha of nitrogen, 25 kg/ha of phosphorus, 75 kg/ha of potassium and 15 kg/ha of magnesium each year. 

COMMON PESTS AND DISEASES

Black pod (Phytophthora pod rot)
Phytophthora palmivora
Phytophthora megakarya
Phytophthora capsici

  

Symptoms

Translucent spots on pod surface which develop into a small, dark hard spots; entire pod becomes black and necrotic with 14 days of initial symptoms; white to yellow downy growth on black areas; internal tissues become dry and shriveled resulting in mummified pods

Cause

Oomycete

Comments

Disease occurs in all cocoa growing areas; P. megakarya is most destructive in Central and West Africa whereas P. capsici is most common in Central and South America

Management

Protective sprays of copper containing fungicides in combination with systemic fungicides are often recommended to control the disease; cocoa plants should be well spaced to allow good air circulation through the plantation; mummified pods should be removed and destroyed to reduce spread

Frosty pod (Monilia pod rot, Watery pod rot)
Moniliophthora roreri

Symptoms

Spots on surface of immature pods; spots turning brown and rapidly enlarging to cover entire pod surface; disease affects only actively growing pods

Cause

Fungus

Comments

Causes serious losses in South-Western parts of South America; spores are dry and powdery and are spread easily by water movement, wind or movement of pods; disease spread is highest during periods of high rainfall

Management

Planting cocoa varieties that produce pods during the dry season allows the pod to avoid the disease; pods showing symptoms of disease should be removed to prevent spread; application of copper containing fungicides will help reduce disease incidence

Witches' broom
Moniliophthora perniciosa

Symptoms

Characteristic proliferation of shoots and brooms from bud; production of branches which do not produce fruit; distorted pods with green patches which give an appearance of uneven ripening

Cause

Fungus

Comments

One of the most devastating cocoa diseases in South America; disease is widespread throughout South America, the Caribbean and Panama; spread of disease greatly influenced by humidity with emergence favored by high temperature and high humidity (>80%)

Management

Good sanitation is the most effective method of controlling the disease; material known to be infected should be removed and destroyed; removal of infected material can be difficult as there may be no visible symptoms; new fungicides and resistant cocoa varieties are being developed to help control the disease

Cocoa swollen shoot
Cocoa swollen shoot virus (CSSV)

Symptoms

Swelling of leaves and shoots; red leaf veins, notably in young leaves; chlorotic patches next to leaf veins; chlorotic spots or flecks on leaves mottled, smooth pods with reduced beans; mottled coloration on pods; stems may develop swellings at nodes or internodes and shoot tips; progressive defoliation may occur ultimately leading to the death of the tree

Cause

Virus

Comments

Only occurs in West Africa. Major problem in Togo, Ghana, Cote d'Ivorie and Nigeria; transmitted by mealybugs. The Swollen Shoot Virus is not native to cocoa but jumped into the cocoa from trees that grew in the rain forests of W. Africa (e.g. Cola chlamydanta, Ceiba pentandra, Adansonia digitata, Cola gigantean and Sterculia tragacantha). The virus is a badnavirus within the family Caulimoviridae.

Management

Infected trees and those surrounding them should be removed and destroyed (up to 5 m from infected tree if less than 10 trees are infected and up to a distance of 15 m if greater than 100 trees are infected) to prevent further spread; a gap should be placed between cocoa plantations of at least 10 m (33 ft) and it may be possible to isolate cocoa plantations using a non-host crop such as oil palm growing between plantations

Cocoa pod borer
Conopomorpha cramerella

Symptoms

Holes in cocoa pod husk caused by insect larvae entering and exiting the pod; uneven and premature ripening of pods; seeds sticking together inside pod due to insect eating surrounding tissue; harvested cocoa beans clump together and can be very difficult to remove from the pod; adult insect is a small brown moth; larvae are cream in color and approximately 1 cm (0.4 in) long; larvae change color to green when they emerge from the pod to pupate

Cause

Insect

Comments

Female moth lives for approximately 5-7 days and can lay 100-200 eggs; eggs are laid on the surface of cocoa pods; larvae develop for 14-18 days before pupating

Management

Sleeving pods in plastic bags while they mature prevents the insect from reaching the pods, sleeves should be applied when pods are 8-10 cm (3-4 in) long; borer populations can be held in check by black ants and weaver ants; chemical control is often economically unfeasible due to the high price of pesticides compared with the low price of cocoa but, where available, small amounts of contact pyrethroid or carbamate applied to underside of cocoa leaves can keep borers below an economically damaging level

Cocoa mirid
Distantiella theobroma
Sahlbergella singularis
Helopeltis spp.
Monalonion spp.

Symptoms

First symptoms appear as tiny puncture wounds on young stems and pods; these punctures quickly turn necrotic, creating black patches which may develop into cankers; discolored bark; terminal leaves and branches dying back; trees unproductive; adult insect is a slender red or brown insect with long legs and antennae; adults are typically between 7 and 10 mm long

Cause

Insect

Comments

Adult females lay their eggs in the bark of the tree and can lay between 30 and 40 eggs

Management

In African countries, the insect is usually controlled by chemical eradication programs consisting of two sprays conducted one month apart to target different stages of the insects development; mirids have been shown to be attracted to trees positioned in direct sunlight and providing shade cover in the form of forest to cocoa trees can be used as part of an integrated control method; do not interplant with other hosts such as cashew, tea, sweet potato, guava, cotton or mango - the trees used must be non-hosts; some species of ant, e.g black ants, can be used as a biological control agent

Cocoa mealybugs
Planococcus spp.
Pseudococus spp.

Symptoms

Flattened oval to round disc-like insect covered in waxy substance on tree branches; insects attract ants which may also be present; insect colony may also be associated with growth of sooty mold due to fungal colonization of sugary honeydew excreted by the insect; symptoms of direct insect damage not well documented but trees may exhibit symptoms of cocoa swollen shoot

Cause

Insect

Comments

Insects have a wide host range; often tended by ants which farm them for their sugary honeydew secretions; transmit Cocoa swollen shoot virus

Management

Mealybugs can potentially be controlled by natural enemies such as lady beetles but are commonly controlled using chemicals; chemical pesticides may also decrease populations of natural enemies leading to mealybug outbreaks

HARVESTING

Cocoa pods in various stages of ripening, Cocoa trees grow in hot, rainy tropical areas within 20° of latitude from the equator. Cocoa harvest is not restricted to one period per year and a harvest typically occurs over several months. In fact, in many countries cocoa can be harvested at any time of the year. Pesticides are often applied to the trees to combat capsid bugs and fungicides to fight black pod disease.

A cross-section of a young cocoa pod cut open.

Immature cocoa pods have a variety of colours but most often are green, red, or purple, and as they mature their colour tends towards yellow or orange, particularly in their creases. Unlike most fruiting trees, the cocoa pod grows directly from the trunk or large branch of a tree rather than from the end of a branch, similar to jackfruit. This makes harvesting by hand easier as most of the pods will not be up in the higher branches. The pods on a tree do not ripen together; harvesting needs to be done periodically through the year. Harvesting occurs between three and four times weekly during the harvest season. The ripe and near-ripe pods, as judged by their colour, are harvested from the trunk and branches of the cocoa tree with a curved knife on a long pole. Care must be used when cutting the stem of the pod to avoid damaging the junction of the stem with the tree, as this is where future flowers and pods will emerge. It is estimated that one person can harvest 650 pods per day.

 

HARVEST PROCESSING

The harvested pods are opened typically with a machete to expose the beans. The pulp and cocoa seeds are removed and the rind is discarded. The pulp and seeds are then piled in heaps, placed in bins, or laid out on grates for several days. During this time, the seeds and pulp undergo "sweating", where the thick pulp liquefies as it ferments. The fermented pulp trickles away, leaving cocoa seeds behind to be collected. Sweating is important for the quality of the beans, which originally have a strong bitter taste. If sweating is interrupted, the resulting cocoa may be ruined; if underdone; the cocoa seed maintains a flavor similar to raw potatoes and becomes susceptible to mildew. Some cocoa producing countries distill alcoholic spirits using the liquefied pulp.

A typical pod contains 20 to 50 beans and about 400 dried beans are required to make one pound - or 880 per kilogram - of chocolate. Cocoa pods weigh an average of 400 grams (0.88 lb) and each one yields 35 to 40 grams (1.2 to 1.4 oz) dried beans (this yield is 40–44% of the total weight in the pod). It is estimated one person can separate the beans from 2000 pods per day.

The wet beans are then transported to a facility so they can be fermented and dried. They are fermented for four to seven days and must be mixed every two days. They are dried for five to fourteen days, depending on the climate conditions. The fermented beans are dried by spreading them out over a large surface and constantly raking them. In large plantations, this is done on huge trays under the sun or by using artificial heat. Small plantations may dry their harvest on little trays or on cowhides. Finally, the beans are trodden and shuffled about (often using bare human feet) and sometimes, during this process, red clay mixed with water is sprinkled over the beans to obtain a finer color, polish, and protection against molds during shipment to factories in the United States, the Netherlands, United Kingdom, and other countries. Drying in the sun is preferable to drying by artificial means, as no extraneous flavors such as smoke or oil are introduced which might otherwise taint the flavor.

The beans should be dry for shipment (usually by sea). Traditionally exported in jute bags, over the last decade, beans are increasingly shipped in 'Mega-Bulk' bulk parcels of several thousand tonnes at a time on ships, or in smaller lots of around 25 tonnes in 20 foot containers. Shipping in bulk significantly reduces handling costs; shipment in bags, however, either in a ship's hold or in containers, is still common.

Throughout Mesoamerica where they are native, cocoa beans are used for a variety of foods. The harvested and fermented beans may be ground to-order at tiendas de chocolate, or chocolate mills. At these mills, the cocoa can be mixed with a variety of ingredients such as cinnamon, chili peppers, almonds, vanilla and other spices to create drinking chocolate.

 

CONSUMPTION

Cocoa and its products (including chocolate) are used worldwide. Per capita consumption is poorly understood, with numerous countries claiming the highest: various reports state that Switzerland, Belgium, and the UK have the highest consumption. However, since there is no clear mechanism to determine how much of a country's production is consumed by residents and how much by visitors, any data with respect to consumption remains purely speculative.

Cocoa was an important commodity in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. A Spanish soldier who was part of the conquest of Mexico by Hernán Cortés tells that when Moctezuma II, emperor of the Aztecs, dined, he took no other beverage than chocolate, served in a golden goblet. Flavored with vanilla or other spices, his chocolate was whipped into a froth that dissolved in the mouth. It is reported that no fewer than 60 portions each day may have been consumed by Moctezuma II, and 2,000 more by the nobles of his court.

HEALTH BENEFITS OF COCOA COMSUMPTION

In general cocoa is considered to be a rich source of antioxidants such as procyanidins and flavanoids, which may impart anti aging properties. Cocoa also contain a high level of flavonoids, specifically epicatechin, which may have beneficial cardiovascular effects on health.

The stimulant activity of cocoa comes from the compound theobromine which is less diuretic as compared to theophylline found in tea. Prolonged intake of flavanol-rich cocoa has been linked to cardiovascular health benefits, though it should be noted that this refers to raw cocoa and to a lesser extent, dark chocolate, since flavonoids degrade during cooking and alkalizing processes. Studies have found short term benefits in LDL cholesterol levels from dark chocolate consumption. The addition of whole milk to milk chocolate reduces the overall cocoa content per ounce while increasing saturated fat levels. Although one study has concluded that milk impairs the absorption of polyphenolic flavonoids, e.g. epicatechin, a follow-up failed to find the effect.

Hollenberg and colleagues of Harvard Medical School studied the effects of cocoa and flavanols on Panama's Kuna people, who are heavy consumers of cocoa. The researchers found that the Kuna People living on the islands had significantly lower rates of heart disease and cancer compared to those on the mainland who do not drink cocoa as on the islands. It is believed that the improved blood flow after consumption of flavanol-rich cocoa may help to achieve health benefits in hearts and other organs. In particular, the benefits may extend to the brain and have important implications for learning and memory.

Foods rich in cocoa appear to reduce blood pressure but drinking green and black tea may not, cocoa help in reduction of cardiovascular mortality up to 50 percent and a 47 percent reduction in all-cause mortality for the men regularly consuming the most cocoa, compared to those consuming the least cocoa from all sources.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

The relative poverty of many cocoa farmers means that environmental consequences such as deforestation are given little significance. For decades, cocoa farmers have encroached on virgin forest, mostly after the felling of trees by logging companies. This trend has decreased as many governments and communities are beginning to protect their remaining forested zones. In general, the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides by cocoa farmers is limited. When cocoa bean prices are high, farmers may invest in their crops, leading to higher yields which, in turn tends to result in lower market prices and a renewed period of lower investment.

Cocoa production is likely to be affected in various ways by the expected effects of global warming. Specific concerns have been raised concerning its future as a cash crop in West Africa, the current centre of global cocoa production. If temperatures continue to rise, West Africa could simply become unfit to grow the coveted beans.

Agroforestry

Cocoa beans may be cultivated under shaded conditions, e.g. agroforestry. Agroforestry can reduce the pressure on existing protected forests for resources, such as firewood, and conserve biodiversity. Agroforests act as buffers to formally protected forests and biodiversity island refuges in an open, human dominated landscape. Research of their shade-grown coffee counterparts has shown that greater canopy cover in plots is significantly associated to greater mammal species richness and abundance The amount of diversity in tree species are fairly comparable between shade-grown cocoa plots and primary forests. Farmers can grow a variety of fruit-bearing shade trees to supplement their income to help cope with the volatile cocoa prices. Though cocoa has been adapted to grow under a dense rainforest canopy, agroforestry does not significantly further enhance cocoa productivity.

COCOA TRADING

Cocoa beans, cocoa butter and cocoa powder are traded on two world exchanges: ICE Futures U.S. and NYSE Liffe Futures and Options. The London market is based on West African cocoa and New York on cocoa predominantly from Southeast Asia. Cocoa is the world's smallest soft commodity market.

The future price of cocoa butter and cocoa powder is determined by multiplying the bean price by a ratio. The combined butter and powder ratio has tended to be around 3.5. If the combined ratio falls below 3.2 or so, production ceases to be economically viable and some factories cease extraction of butter and powder and trade exclusively in cocoa liquor.

Cocoa beans can be held in storage for several years in bags or in bulk, during which the ownership can change several times, as the cocoa is traded much the same as metal or other commodities, to gain profit for the owner.

There are different metrics used for chocolate consumption. The Netherlands has the highest monetary amount of cocoa bean imports (US$2.1 billion); it is also one of the main ports into Europe. The United States has highest amount of cocoa powder imports ($220 million); the US has a large amount of cocoa complementary products. The United Kingdom has the highest amount of retail chocolate ($1.3 billion) and is one of the biggest chocolate consumption per capita markets.

CHOCOLATE PRODUCTION

 

To make 1 kg (2.2 pounds) of chocolate, about 300 to 600 beans are processed, depending on the desired cocoa content. In a factory, the beans are roasted. Next they are cracked and then de-shelled by a "winnower". The resulting pieces of beans are called nibs. They are sometimes sold in small packages at specialty stores and markets to be used in cooking, snacking, and chocolate dishes. Since nibs are directly from the cocoa tree, they contain high amounts of theobromine. Most nibs are ground, using various methods, into a thick creamy paste, known as chocolate liquor or cocoa paste. This "liquor" is then further processed into chocolate by mixing in (more) cocoa butter and sugar (and sometimes vanilla and lecithin as an emulsifier), and then refined, conched and tempered. Alternatively, it can be separated into cocoa powder and cocoa butter using a hydraulic press or the Broma process. This process produces around 50% cocoa butter and 50% cocoa powder. Standard cocoa powder has a fat content of approximately 10–12 percent. Cocoa butter is used in chocolate bar manufacture, other confectionery, soaps, and cosmetics.

Treating with alkali produces Dutch process cocoa powder, which is less acidic, darker and more mellow in flavor than what is generally available in most of the world. Regular (non-alkalized) cocoa is acidic, so when cocoa is treated with an alkaline ingredient, generally potassium carbonate, the pH increases. This process can be done at various stages during manufacturing, including during nib treatment, liquor treatment or press cake treatment.

Another process that helps develop the flavor is roasting. Roasting can be done on the whole bean before shelling or on the nib after shelling. The time and temperature of the roast affect the result: A "low roast" produces a more acid, aromatic flavor, while a high roast gives a more intense, bitter flavor lacking complex flavor notes.